सैन्य गठबंधन
ट्रूमैन सिद्धांत और मार्शल योजना
को यूरोप में सोवियत विस्तार
को रोकने के लिए संयुक्त
राज्य अमेरिका द्वारा अपनाया गया था। 1948 में,
राष्ट्रपति ट्रूमैन के सामने एक
गुप्त जासूसी रिपोर्ट पेश की गई,
जिसमें कहा गया कि
सोवियत रेड आर्मी अब
यूरोप में सैन्य कार्रवाई
करने के लिए तैयार
थी। इसी बीच, 1948 में
चेक विद्रोह और बर्लिन नाकेबंदी
दोनों हुईं। उसी वर्ष सोवियत
संघ द्वारा परमाणु बम का सफल
परीक्षण और चीन में
समाजवादी सरकार की स्थापना (1949) ने
पश्चिमी सहयोगियों के बीच अनिश्चितता
की भावना पैदा कर दी।
इसी पृष्ठभूमि के खिलाफ पश्चिमी
शक्तियों ने सोवियत आक्रामक
नीतियों का संयुक्त रूप
से मुकाबला करने के लिए
एक श्रृंखला में सैन्य गठबंधन
किए।
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संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका द्वारा नेतृत्व वाला सैन्य गठबंधन
1948 में, ग्रेट ब्रिटेन, फ्रांस, बेल्जियम, नीदरलैंड, लक्जमबर्ग और अन्य यूरोपीय
देशों ने साम्यवाद के
खिलाफ अपनी एकता बनाए
रखने और लड़ाई को
मजबूत करने के प्रयास
में ब्रसेल्स संधि पर हस्ताक्षर
किए। संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका ने इस कदम
का स्वागत किया। राष्ट्रपति ट्रूमैन ने कहा कि
अमेरिका यूरोप के स्वतंत्र राज्यों
की अखंडता की रक्षा करने
के इस प्रयास में
उनका बहुत समर्थन करेगा।
ब्रसेल्स संधि का उद्देश्य
युद्ध के समय पारस्परिक
सैन्य सहायता प्रदान करना था। अमेरिका
इस बात से आश्वस्त
था कि साम्यवादी विस्तार
की लहर को रोकने
के लिए केवल आर्थिक
सहायता पर्याप्त नहीं थी। यूरोप
के देशों को भी सैन्य
संबंधों से बांधना चाहिए।
इस कारण से, उस
समय संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका के नेतृत्व में
सैन्य गठबंधनों की एक श्रृंखला
स्थापित की गई, जिनमें
से पहला नाटो था।
1. स्थापना: 4
अप्रैल 1949 को वाशिंगटन में
बारह राष्ट्र, जैसे बेल्जियम, डेनमार्क,
फ्रांस, कनाडा, आइसलैंड, इटली, पुर्तगाल, नीदरलैंड, ग्रेट ब्रिटेन और अमेरिका एक
साथ आए और उत्तरी
अटलांटिक संधि संगठन, या
नाटो का गठन किया।
ग्रीस और तुर्की ने
1952 में और पश्चिमी जर्मनी
ने 1955 में इस गठबंधन
में शामिल हुए। सदस्य राज्यों
ने अंतरराष्ट्रीय विवादों को शांतिपूर्ण साधनों
से हल करने का
वचन दिया।
मुख्य शर्तें:
[i] यदि किसी सदस्य राज्य
पर किसी विदेशी शक्ति
द्वारा हमला किया गया,
तो अन्य सभी सहयोगी
उसकी सहायता के लिए आएंगे
और संयुक्त रूप से हमले
को विफल करेंगे।
[ii] सदस्य राज्य आपसी व्यापार के
माध्यम से अपनी आर्थिक
स्थिति में सुधार करने
का प्रयास करेंगे।
सैन्य उपाय: राष्ट्रपति ट्रूमैन ने यह प्रस्ताव
रखा कि अमेरिका जैसे
सैन्य गठबंधनों के सदस्य राज्यों
को हथियारों की आपूर्ति करेगा।
नाटो की सैन्य शक्ति
बढ़ाने के लिए यह
निर्णय लिया गया कि
पश्चिमी जर्मनी को शांति सम्मेलनों
में तय किए गए
से अधिक हथियार रखने
की अनुमति दी जानी चाहिए।
The Military Alliances
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were adopted by the U.S.A. to check Soviet expansion in Europe. In 1948, a secret espionage report was placed before President Truman in 1948, which stated that the Soviet Red Army was now ready to carry out military action in Europe. In the meantime, both the Czech Uprising and the Berlin Blockade took place in 1948. Soviet Union's successful testing of the atom bomb in that same year and the establishment of a socialist government in China (1949), all created a feeling of uncertainty among the Western allies. It was against this background that the Western powers entered into a series of military alliances in order to check the Soviet aggressive policies jointly.
The Military Alliance headed by the U.S.A
In 1948, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, and other European countries signed the Brussels Treaty in an attempt to preserve their unity and strengthen the fight against Communism. The U.S.A. welcomed this move. President Truman said that the U.S.A. wouldgreatly support this endeavour of the free states of Europe to protect their integrity. The Brussels Treaty was aimed at providing mutual military assistance during times of war. The U.S.A. was convinced that economic aid was not enough to stem the tide of Communist expansion. The countries of Europe should also be bound by military ties. For this reason, a series of military alliances under the leadership of the U.S.A. was set up at this time, the first being NATO.
1. Foundation: Twelve nations, such as Belgium, Denmark, France, Canada, Iceland, Italy, Portugal, Netherlands, Great Britain and the U.S.A. came together in Washington on 4th April 1949 to form the North Atlantic Treaty Alliance, or NATO. Greece and Turkey joined the alliance in 1952; West Germany in 1955. The member states vowed to settle international disputes through peaceful means.
The foremost conditions: [i] If any member state were attacked by a foreign power, all the other allies would come to its aid to jointly repulse the attack. [ii] The member states would try to improve their economic condition through mutual trade.
Military measures: President Truman made a proposal that the U.S.A. would supply-arms to the member states of the military alliances like NATO. In order to enhance the military power of NATO, it was decided that West Germany should be allowed to increase her ornaments arsenal from what had been decided upon in the peace conferences.
The U.S.A. tried to project the NATO as a defensive alliance. However, it soon became clear that the NATO was primarily concerned with military aggression. Eisenhower, the Chief of American Armed Forces declared that the NATO had been set up in order to defeat Soviet efforts to destroy international peace and security and to expand its influence.
2. SEATO:
Establishment of the SEATO: The South-East Asian Treaty Organisation was set up in 1954 under American leadership in order to keep the area secure from Communist aggression.
Members: The eight member states of the SEATO were U.S.A., Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines. It is interesting to note that though it was aimed at protecting South-East Asia from Communist influence, only two of its member countries actually belonged to that area.
3. CENTO: The Middle East Defence Organisation or MEDO was set up in 1955 in order to check Soviet aggression in the Middle East and also to help the U.S.A. to gain control over the oil of the region. Since the treaty was signed in Baghdad, it was also known as the Baghdad Treaty. Later, this organization came to be known as the CENTO. Great Britain, Pakistan and Iran were its member states.
4. Other organizations: Apart from these military alliances, the U.S.A. also signed treaties with powers from specific regions. In 1947, the Rio Treaty was signed with the Latin American states. This was also known as Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance. A similar alliance was set up in the Pacific region with Australia and New Zealand, (ANZUS). The U.S.A. also signed bilateral treaties with Philippines (1951), Japan (1951), South Korea (1953) and Taiwan (1954).
Military Alliances under the Soviet Union
The setting up of military alliance like NATO, SEATO and CENTO, which were aimed specifically at restricting Soviet expansion, escalated the feelings of fear and mistrust between the two blocs.
The Soviet bloc began to suffer from a sense of insecurity. These countries retaliated by setting up their own military alliances. The important ones among these were:
1. Warsaw Pact:
Signing of the pact: In 1955, the Warsaw Treaty Organisation or WTO was set up.
Members: The members of the Warsaw Pact were Soviet Russia, Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, East Germany, Hungary and Communist China.
The terms of the treaty: [I] The member countries must place their military troops, under a joint command. [ii] If any of the member states was attacked by a foreign power, all the other member states would come to the aid of the victim. [iii] The members of the Warsaw Pact were not allowed to join any other military pact.
Relinquishing membership: The members of the Warsaw Pact did not have the freedom to give up their membership. Therefore, when Hungary and Czechoslovakia attempted to come out of this alliance, the Soviet Union used military force to stop them. Albania was successful in leaving the Pact in 1968, probably because it was a relatively unimportant state.
2. COMECON: In 1949, the Council for Mutual Assistance or COMECON was set up by the Soviet Union.
Impact of the Cold War
The Cold War that broke out between the Western Capitalist bloc and the Communist bloc led by the Soviet Union as the aftermath of the Second World War, had a far-reaching effect on world politics and on many allied fields.
1. Military alliances: Both the blocs formed military alliances with states of their respective blocs in order to preserve their military and economic interests. The foremost among these alliances were the NATO, SEATO, CENTO among the Western Powers and the Warsaw Pact led by the Soviet Union.
2. The arms race: The air of insecurity and mistrust generated by the Cold War led to an arms race. Each camp spent huge sums of money for the development of the most sophisticated weapons and missiles, based on advanced research and nuclear technology. Each side wanted to be ahead of the other in this field. This was a very dangerous trend in world politics.
3. International crisis: The enmity between the Western bloc and the Eastern bloc led to international crises in various parts of the world. Bilateral tensions between two specific countries in any part of the world often got associated with Cold War tensions. The Korean War (1950), the Vietnam War (1953-54), and the Suez Crisis (1956) and Cuba Crisis (1962)
are examples of such crises.
4. The demolition of the Berlin Wall: It was due to the Cold War that the Berlin Wall was erected in 1961. But prolonged agitation led to the demolition of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
5. Break-up of the U.S.S.R.: Although the Soviet Union competed on equal terms with the U.S.A. at the peak of the Cold War, the tremendous expenses involved in maintaining the arms race and giving aid to its ally states brought about her economic decline. This, and other changing political factors resulted in the steady loss of her power. Eventually, in 1991, the Soviet Union broke up altogether.
6. Independence of the satellite states of the Soviet bloc: States like Latvia, Estonia Lithuania and some others republics as well as some Baltic states emerged as free states after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
7. Unipolar world: After the fall of the Soviet Union, the bipolarism of international politics was destroyed. The U.S.A. emerged as the sole super power, leading to the establishment of a unipolar system in world politics.
8. End of the Cold War and decline of Communism: With the fall of the Soviet Union, the Cold War ended, with victory for the U.S. led Western bloc. The Communist bloc was significantly weakened. As a result, Communist governments in many parts of the world lost their power. There was a steady expansion of democracy and increase in the number of democratic governments in the world.
Conflict
Initially, the Soviet Union allowed the Western powers to use her roads to access their respective territories but soon, problems cropped up. The Soviet Union wished to set up a Communist government in Germany, which would be under her control. But the Western powers were not willing to allow this. Though the Soviet Union hoped to get adequate amounts of compensation from Germany, the Western powers were unwilling to make the Germans pay compensation. The administration of the city of Berlin as well as Germany by four separate powers soon led to great problems. A joint regulatory council had been set up by the four powers but they could scarcely come to any unanimous decisions. In 1948, the ill-will between the two blocs reached such proportions that the Russian member left the council. (20th March, 1948). On 30th March, The Soviet union informed the Western powers that the military vehicles of the Western countries which remained in Germany would be used by her. The Western powers were incensed by this impudent order. On 22nd June, the Soviet Union further announced that she would undertake currency reforms in her area, which would be extended to all the other areas also. But the Western Powers not only rejected this proposal, they also introduced their own currency in Germany.
Results
The Suez Crisis had enormous effect on international politics.
1. Increase in Nasser's dignity and status: This Crisis was eventually a victory for Arab nationalism. Nasser's personal status and his popularity both increased dramatically. He was regarded as a hero in the Arab world. In the words of David Thomson, "The campaign... left Nasser triumphant despite his crushing defeat by Israel." (Europe Since Napoleon, pg 869). Nasser almost held the status of a modern Saladin. Egypt and Syria now came together as the United Arab Republic (U.A.E.), and Nasser was the first President of this state. Nasser also became one of the foremost leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement.
2. Great Britain's economic ruin: Great Britain faced great economic losses due to the Egyptian war. In the last three months of 1956, she spent around 400 million dollars because of this crisis. Her economy was already weak. This expen- diture was ruinous for it. W. Knapp comments, "The era of British dominance in the Middle-East had been brought to an end and was seen to have ended."
3. The tarnishing of Eden's Image: The British Prime Minister Anthony Eden did not come out well in this crisis. He was severely criticized in his home country for unnecessarily involving Great Britain in a futile war. In fact, he resigned on 9th January 1957.
4. A blot on France's honour: France too faced a loss of position and power because of her
involvement in this crisis. The Suez crisis resulted in the erosion of France's political position in the Middle-East and her eventual eviction from that political sphere. 5. The enmity between Egypt and Israel: This crisis served to poison the relations between Egypt and Israel. The subsequent crises in the Middle-East had their origin in this bitter incident, which created suspicion, rivalry and enmity between Israel and the Arab states.
8. Benefits to the Soviet Union: The Suez Crisis was a diplomatic victory for the Soviet Union. Since she had supported Egypt during this crisis, the Soviet Union became popular among the Arab diplomats and leaders. She gave economic aid to construct the Aswan Dam. She also gave military support to Egypt and political support to Arab nationalism. Thus, she was able to create a favourable image in the Middle East. The political defeat of Great Britain and France during the Suez Crisis had left a political vacuum in the Middle East. The Soviet Union was able to fill that vacuum and easily place herself in a favourable position.
7. The beginning of the Cold War in the Middle East: In 1957, President Eisenhower clearly announced that the aim of American foreign policy was to check the expansion of Russian influence in the Middle East. The Eisenhower Doctrine stated that if any state was attacked by a state controlled by the international communist movement (or the Soviet Union), the U.S.A. would give aid to the affected state. The American Congress allotted a sum of 400 to 500 million dollars to be spent for pursuing this policy. This doctrine pushed the Middle East into the cauldron of Cold War politics. According to Peter Calvocoressi: "The Eisenhower Doctrine was a new plan of constructing an anti-Russian front in the Middle East." (World Politics 1945-2000, pg 204).
India's role in the Suez Crisis
India played an important role in trying to resolve the Suez Crisis.
1. Attempt to keep the canal a free zone: Since India used the Suez Canal for her trade, she was naturally interested in trying to keep it open and free.
2. Egypt's claim to the Suez Canal: India held the stand that the Suez Canal was an inseparable part of the state of Egypt, as ratified by the Constantinople Convention of 1888. Therefore, Egypt's sovereign rights should be respected. However, in the interest of the international body of users, there should be a mechanism in place by which any problem which arose regarding the Canal could be resolved according to the guidelines laid down by the U.N. Charter.
3. Mediation at the London Conference: India's Foreign Minister Krishna Menon represented the country at the London Conference held in 1956. Since Egypt had not sent a representative to this conference, Krishna Menon acted as the mediator between Egypt and the Western countries.
4. Denouncing the Western invasion of Egypt: India severely criticized the attack upon Egypt by Great Britain and France. Nehru described this as an act of naked aggression.
5. Cease-fire and end of the conflict: India played a major role in bringing an end to hostilities during this war, and also in the removal of foreign troops from Egyptian soil.
6. Joining the peace-keeping force: India also sent her own troops to Egypt as part of the peace-keeping force deployed by Israel.
Importance
Even though the Cuban Missile crisis was a short-lived affair, it had great influence on international politics.
1. War was stopped: The Cuban Missile Crisis is an example of how easily a major nuclear conflict could be sparked off, and how disastrous its results could be. Though this conflict between the two superpowers was a shock to the whole world, eventually peaceful intentions, restraint and humanism won the day.
2. Khrushchev's positive role: The Soviet Premier displayed great restraint and foresight. His sincerity and commitment to the cause of international peace helped the world to avert a terrible crisis. Even President Kennedy recognized this and complimented his Soviet counterpart for his commitment to peace.
3. The importance of discussion: The Cuban Missile Crisis was an example of arriving at a peaceful solution of a crisis through discussion and debate. This path was henceforth adopted by the two super-powers as a pragmatic and dignified way of handling their disputes. It helped to create an atmosphere of cooperation between them.
4. Arms control: Another effect of this crisis was to encourage the world leaders to move towards arms control. In the following year, (1963), The U.S.A., the Soviet Union and Great Britain placed partial limitations upon the testing of nuclear weapons.
5. Hot-line between the super-powers: The super-powers understood the importance of open discussions where no third power would be involved. In the year following the Cuban Missile Crisis, the White House in Washington and the Kremlin in Moscow were directly linked by a telephone 'hot-line'. This made it easier for the two heads of state to have direct and one-to-one talks.
6. Bitter relation between the Soviet Union and China: The establishment of cordial relations between the U.S.A. and the Soviet Union was not liked by China. Mao Zedong said that the Soviet Union was afraid of the power of the U.S.A.. He remarked that the U.S.A. was a 'paper tiger'. Khrushchev said in reply that even the paper tiger had atomic teeth. This verbal exchange created ill-feeling between the two Communist powers. This was heightened by the growing ideological differences between the two.
7. U.S. Foreign Policy realigns itself: Cuba was the first state of the Western Hemisphere to adopt communism. It also maintained good relationship with the communist countries of East Europe. This was a matter of concern to the U.S.A., specially as Cuba was a close neighbour. For this reason, the U.S.A. found it necessary to take certain correctional steps regarding her foreign policy.
The Course of the War
Despite the intervention of U.N. forces, North Korean troops were able to conquer about 95% of the territories of South Korea by the middle of September, 1950.
1. South Korea freed from the control of North Korea: The U.S.A. wanted to avoid a complete rout and sent fresh troops and armaments to Korea. 50,000 soldiers were sent to South Korea. The U.N. troops also stepped up their attack. By the end of September, the Russian troops had been pushed out of South Korea. Thus, the U.N.'s initiative was successful.
2. The progress of Macarthur: But, even though the U.N.'S plans had been fulfilled, American General Macarthur did not withdraw his troops from Korean soil, but crossed the 38th parallel and entered North Korea (9th October, 1950). Within three weeks, this force captured North Korea and having reached the Yellow River's banks on the borders of China, bombed the region.
3. China's counter-attack: The Chinese premier Mao Zedong was not willing to accept American military action on his soil, even if it was camouflaged as U.N. intervention. Under his orders, the Chinese troops, which had received Russian military support, mounted a counter-attack on the U.N. troops. Not only did the Chinese troops chase the U.N. troops out of North Korea, they actually crossed the 38th parallel and entered South Korean soil. On 4th January, 1951, the Chinese troops occupied Seoul, the capital of South Korea.
4. Removal of Macarthur: At this time, General Macarthur was removed from the command of the American troops, as the U.S. administration did not approve of his aggressive military policy. President Truman was also not ready to get involved in an unnecessary war in the Far East.
Ceasefire
After the removal of Macarthur, the intensity of the conflict was considerably reduced and the situation improved rapidly. By removing General Macarthur, the U.S. administration wanted to show that it did not wish to start hostilities with China. Eventually, in June 1951, the Soviet Union proposed a ceasefire between the two sides. After a series of long discussions and conferences, the two sides ended the war by means of a peace treaty in the North Korean capital of Panmunjom on 27th July, 1953. According to the terms of the peace treaty, the 38th parallel of latitude was accepted as the line of demarcation between North and South Korea. The war prisoners of both the sides would be sent to their respective countries within 60 days. The Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission was set up under the leadership of India to oversee the repatriation of the prisoners of war.
Results and Importance
The Korean War may appear to have been unnecessary and pointless. But the results and importance of this war were significant.
1. The Partition of Korea: The war could not unify the two Koreas into one political state. The partition of Korea became an accepted fact. There was tremendous enmity between the two Koreas.
2. The economic damage done to Korea: Korea paid a terrible price as a result of this war.
4 million Koreans, soldiers and civilians, were killed. 5 million people became homeless. The
economy of both the states was ruined.
3. The expansion of the Cold war: The Cold war had hitherto been limited to Europe. It was now extended even to faraway Asia. In the Korean War, Communist China chose to oppose the U.S.A. Moreover, the Korean War was the first actual war which was fought as an outcome of the hostility between the U.S.A. and the Soviet Union.
4. The weakness of the U.N.: Initially, the Soviet Union used to absent itself from the Security Council. This gave the U.S.A. the opportunity to use the U.N. forces to invade North Korea.
Later the Soviet Union began to attend the Security Council meetings. By using its veto power, the Soviet Union practically paralysed the working of the Security Council. This led to the enhancement of the power of the General Assembly. But the manipulation of the U.N. by the Great Powers resulted in tarnishing the image of that body and destroying its credibility as an unbiased institution.
5. The friendly relation between the Soviet Union and Communist China: The U.S.A. had wanted to use the pretext of the Korean War to invade China. But this plan remained unfulfilled. In fact, the Korean War brought the Soviet Union and China together diplomatically, and at the same time, it increased the enmity between the U.S.A. and China.
6. Changes in American foreign policy: The Korean War brought about changes in the foreign policy of the U.S.A. All along, the U.S.A. had recognized the Soviet Union as her rival and enemy. But after the Korean War, she expanded her foreign policy initiatives and took up the cudgels against the entire Socialist camp. As a result, all countries that were Socialist were regarded by her as a potential source of danger. Thus, the Cold War was extended far beyond T the shores of Europe. The entire globe was now a theatre of conflict.
7. Setting up armed camps: After the Korean War, the U.S.A. began to set up military alliances in the Pacific region and also in Asia In 1951, she signed a treaty of military alliance with the Philippines. The ANZUS, consisting of a military alliance between the U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand was also signed at this time. In that same year, the U.S.A. signed a bilateral defensive treaty with Japan and also signed another treaty with 48 other states. Japan was also a principal signatory of this treaty. In 1954, the U.S.A. signed a military treaty with Taiwan. She also entered into bilateral relations with many other states of this region.
